The historical setting

The Kingdom of Mapungubwe (pronounced mah-POON-goob-weh) was an ancient state located at the confluence of the Shashe and Limpopo rivers in present day South Africa, south of Great Zimbabwe. The capital's population was 5,000 by 1250, and the state likely covered 30,000 km (12,000 sq mi). Around 1000 CE, some Leopard's Kopje people moved across the Limpopo to Bambandyanalo where they practiced agropastoralism, moving large cattle herds to other communities' grazing land which fostered socio-political relations, while also engaging in the Indian Ocean trade via Swahili city-states on the East African coast. Over the centuries, increased wealth among the growing population produced inequalities for which Bambandyanalo's spatial arrangement was unsuited. Around 1220, amid a dry period, the Mapungubwe elite moved to settle the top of Mapungubwe Hill, followed by the population who settled the surrounding land below.

K2 (1000–1220)

Around 1000, some Leopard's Kopje people moved south to settle Bambandyanalo (known as K2, situated beneath Bambandyanalo Hill), as the Zhizo moved west to settle Toutswe in modern day Botswana. Some scholars believe their relations to have been hostile and characterised by military conflict, however others insist they were more complex, both socially and politically. Their arrival coincided with the onset of a wet period, which greatly increased agricultural yield. Leopard's Kopje people spoke an early form of Shona, likely Kalanga (western Shona). K2 was the capital, and was likely divided into residential areas under the authority of a family head, with the chief having the largest area. Women worked copper, while men worked iron.

They cultivated sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet, ground beans, and cowpeas. To make more productive use of the land, cattle were herded away from the capital and permitted to graze on other communities' land, fostering socio-political relations with those communities while also allowing for bigger herds. The population expanded, and K2 housed 1,500 people by 1200. Rainmaking was widespread, and the chief sometimes hired strangers who were believed to have special relationships with the spirits of the land, such as the San, due to their longer habitation.

Culture and society

Over the course of settlement at K2, their society transitioned from a society based on social ranking to one based on social classes, and was one of the first class-based social systems and examples of sacral kingship in southern Africa. The leader and elites inhabited the hilltop, with the population below. There were four paths up the hill, with the main one guarded by soldiers, who were called the "eye" of the king. Settlements were divided into residential areas under the authority of family heads, and surrounded the hill, forming a protective circle. The kingdom was likely divided into a five-tiered hierarchy due to the wide spread of the population; family heads, headmen, petty chiefs, senior chiefs, and the king.

The king slept in a small wooden hut, in a supposedly secret location. Visitors were secluded from the king. His entourage included soldiers and praise singers, along with musicians who played mbiras and xylophones. His actions were ritualised, such that, if he sneezed, a praise singer would tell everyone. Wives were viewed as a route to success and status, and as such the king had many, with the senior wife in charge.

Economy

Mapungubwe's economy was predominantly based on agropastoralism. The region, being semi-arid, was far from ideal for agriculture, necessitating the herding of cattle away from fields during crop season (despite their social importance). This reduced stress on the land and allowed the keeping of larger herds, maximising productivity. Fluctuating rainfall also posed challenges that were overcome. Textiles and ceramics were produced at Mapungubwe, along with ivory products such as bracelets, while K2 produced cloth and glass roller beads. The metal industry (locally-developed) involved smelting and forging iron, copper, gold, brass, and bronze. Most metals were imported from nearby regions, whether by tribute or trade (gold likely came from the Tati goldfields in modern-day Botswana and from southwestern modern-day Zimbabwe).

Goods that were produced included chisels, adzes, axes, and arrowheads, along with jewellery. Mapungubwe traded locally with Toutswe and Eiland among others. A major source of their wealth came from the Indian Ocean trade. An early link was with Chibuene. After Chibuene burnt down, Sofala became the main trading port, which was frequented by Arab merchants due to higher demand for gold from the 10th century as various Muslim, European, and Indian states issued gold coinage.