The historical setting
The Battle of Adwa was the climactic battle of the First Italo-Ethiopian War. It was fought on 1 March 1896, near the town of Adwa between the Ethiopian Empire under Emperor Menelik II and an Italian colonial force led by General Oreste Baratieri. Following a dispute over the interpretation of the Treaty of Wuchale, Italy attempted to force Ethiopia to abide by the Italian version of the treaty and impose a protectorate over Ethiopia. In response, Emperor Menelik II mobilized a massive army, with estimates ranging from 73,000 to over 100,000 men, mostly equipped with modern rifles imported from France and Russia.
Facing them was a much smaller Italian colonial force under General Oreste Baratieri, which was unfamiliar with the terrain and hampered by poor reconnaissance. Despite concerns about the size and strength of the Ethiopian forces, Baratieri, under pressure from Rome to act decisively, decided to initiate a surprise attack on the Ethiopians camped near Adwa.
Background
In 1889, the Italians signed the Treaty of Wuchale with King Menelik of Shewa. The treaty, signed after Italy established its position in Eritrea, recognized Italy's claim over the coastal colony. In it, Italy also promised to provide financial assistance and military supplies. A dispute later arose over the interpretation of the two versions of the document. In the Italian-language version, the disputed Article 17 of the treaty stated that the Emperor of Ethiopia was obliged to conduct all foreign affairs through Italian authorities, effectively making Ethiopia a protectorate of the Kingdom of Italy. The Amharic version of the article stated that the Emperor could use the good offices of the Kingdom of Italy in his relations with foreign nations if he wished.
The Italian diplomats claimed that the original Amharic text included the clause and that Menelik II knowingly signed a modified copy of the Treaty. During the 1890-96 period, the Italians pursued a twofold strategy to advance their imperial goals in Ethiopia. The first dimension, advocated mainly by the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and nicknamed "politica scioana", was diplomatic, by attempting to persuade Menelik into accepting their interpretation of Article 17 and mobilising other European powers to exert pressure on the Ethiopian monarch.
Battle
Around 9 p.m. on the 27th, in accordance with the orders of General Oreste Baratieri, the columns of Vittorio Dabormida, Giuseppe Arimondi, and Matteo Albertone advanced toward the Ethiopian positions; the reserve column of Giuseppe Ellena followed an hour later. The moonlight favored the march of the columns. David Levering Lewis states that the Italian battle plan called for three columns to march in parallel formation to the crests of three mountains – Dabormida commanding on the right, Albertone on the left, and Arimondi in the center – with a reserve under Ellena following behind Arimondi. The supporting crossfire each column could give the others made the 'soldiers as deadly as razored shears'. Albertone's brigade was to set the pace for the others.
He was to position himself on the summit known as Kidane Mehret, which would give the Italians the high ground from which to meet the Ethiopians. The first Italian error was made by Albertone: instead of continuing west toward the Kidane Mehret Pass, he veered north toward the Rebbi Arayeni Pass around 2:30 a.m. Having reached the Kidane Mehret Pass around 3:30 a.m., the column paused there for half an hour before resuming its march at a very brisk pace toward Enda Kidane Mehret.
Immediate aftermath
George Berkeley records that the Italian casualties were 6,133 men killed: 261 officers, 2,918 white NCOs and privates, with 954 permanently missing, and about 2,000 ascari dead. Another 1,428 were wounded – 470 Italians (including 31 officers) and 958 ascari. 1,865 Italians and 2,000 ascaris were taken prisoner. Richard Caulk estimates that the number of Italians killed were 300 officers, 4,600 Italian rank, and 1,000 askari for a total of 5,900 dead. 1,000 escaped wounded and at least 2,000 were captured. Citing contemporary figures, Caulk records Ethiopian losses to be 3,886 killed and 6,000 wounded. Berkeley estimates Ethiopian losses to be 7,000 killed and 10,000 wounded.
Despite some instances of abuse (including possibly some instances of castration), the Italian prisoners were generally treated better by the Ethiopians. Among the prisoners was General Albertone. Chris Prouty notes that Albertone was given into the care of Azaj Zamanel, commander of Empress Taytu's personal army, and "had a tent to himself, a horse and servants". However, around 70 Italian prisoners were massacred in retaliation for the death of Bashah Aboye. The officer responsible for the massacre was reportedly imprisoned by Menelik. "The confrontation between Italy and Ethiopia at Adwa was a fundamental turning point in Ethiopian history," writes Henze.