As an important political figure in Shu Han, Zhuge Liang handled administration and military affairs in historical accounts. Fiction later added many dramatic stratagems and features to his image.

Works such as the Memorial on Sending Out the Troops and historical sources help explain the background. Stories such as borrowing arrows with straw boats cannot be directly equated with his actual experiences.

Historical sources

The authoritative historical source on Zhuge Liang's life is his biography in Volume 35 of the Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi), which was written by the historian Chen Shou (233–297) in the third century. Chen Shou had worked in the historical offices of the Shu Han government, and had previously collated Zhuge Liang's writings into an anthology. The scope of this collection may have been limited to official government documents.

Early life (181–207)

As Zhuge Liang was orphaned at a young age, he was raised by Zhuge Xuan, one of his father's cousins. He accompanied Zhuge Xuan to Yuzhang Commandery (around present-day Nanchang, Jiangxi) when the latter was appointed as the Commandery Administrator sometime in the mid-190s. Later, after the Han central government designated Zhu Hao as the new Administrator, Zhuge Xuan left Yuzhang Commandery and brought Zhuge Liang and Zhuge Jun to Jing Province (covering present-day Hubei and Hunan) to live with the provincial governor Liu Biao, whom he was an old friend of.

After Zhuge Xuan died, Zhuge Liang moved to Deng County in Nanyang Commandery, and settled down in Longzhong, an area about 20 li west of Xiangyang, the capital of Jing Province. In Longzhong he lived the life of a peasant and spent his free time reading and travelling. He enjoyed reciting Liangfu Yin, a folk song popular in the area around his ancestral home in Shandong. Zhuge Liang maintained close relations with well-known intellectuals such as Sima Hui, Pang Degong and Huang Chengyan. However, other local literati scorned him when they learnt that he often compared himself to Guan Zhong and Yue Yi. Only a few, namely Cui Zhouping, Xu Shu, Shi Tao and Meng Jian, got along well with him and agreed that he was comparable to Guan Zhong and Yue Yi.

Between the late 190s and early 200s, Zhuge Liang often studied and travelled with Xu Shu, Shi Guangyuan, and Meng Gongwei. Whenever he read, he only picked up the key points and moved on. His three friends, in contrast, focused on details and sometimes even memorised them. Throughout his time in Longzhong, he led a carefree life and took his time to do things. He often sat down with his arms around his knees, sighing to himself from time to time while in deep thought. He once told his three friends that they would become commandery administrators or provincial governors if they served in the government. When they asked him what his ambition was, he only laughed and did not give an answer.

Service in southern Jing Province (209–211)

Following the Battle of Red Cliffs, Liu Bei nominated Liu Qi as the Inspector of Jing Province and sent his forces to conquer the four commanderies in southern Jing Province: Wuling (near Changde, Hunan), Changsha, Guiyang (near Chenzhou, Hunan) and Lingling (near Yongzhou, Hunan). The administrators of the four commanderies surrendered to him. After Liu Qi died in 209, acting on Lu Su's advice, Sun Quan agreed to "lend" the territories in Jing Province to Liu Bei and nominate him to succeed Liu Qi as the Governor of Jing Province.

After assuming governorship of southern Jing Province in 209, Liu Bei appointed Zhuge Liang as Military Adviser General of the Household and put him in charge of collecting tax revenue from Lingling, Guiyang and Changsha commanderies for his military forces. During this time, Zhuge Liang was stationed in Linzheng County (present-day Hengyang, Hunan) in Changsha Commandery.